Kids Research Express

Automation, system of manufacture designed to extend the capacity of machines to perform certain tasks formerly done by humans, and to control sequences of operations without human intervention. The term automation has also been used to describe nonmanufacturing systems in which programmed or automatic devices can operate independently or nearly independently of human control. In the fields of communications, aviation, and astronautics, for example, such devices as automatic telephone switching equipment, automatic pilots, and automated guidance and control systems are used to perform various operations much faster or better than could be accomplished by humans.

Embryology, branch of biology dealing with the development of the animal embryo. (For the embryology of plants, see Fertilization ; Plant ; Seed .) Embryology includes within its province the development of the fertilized egg and embryo and the growth of the fetus . Comparative Embryology Sea urchins, frogs, humans, and many other animals are remarkably similar in their early development. All begin with a single cell that divides into two cells, the first step in the process of cleavage (1a, 2a, 3a). During cleavage, cell divisions occur so rapidly that the cells do not have time to grow between divisions, and the result is smaller and smaller cells. Cleavage produces a solid ball of cells called a morula (1b, 2b, 3b). Within the morula, a fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoel develops, converting a morula into a blastula (1c, 2c, 3c). In a process called gastrulation, certain cells of the blastula migrate to different regions of the blastula to create the gastrula, a structure wit...

Physiology, study of the physical and chemical processes that take place in living organisms during the performance of life functions. It is concerned with such basic activities as reproduction , growth, metabolism , excitation, and contraction as they are carried out within the fine structure, the cells , tissues , organs, and organ systems of the body. Physiology is intimately linked with anatomy and was historically considered a part of medicine. Its emphasis on investigating biological mechanisms with the tools of physics and chemistry made physiology a distinct discipline in the 19th century; the tendency today, however, is toward a fragmentation and merging with the many specialized branches of the life sciences. Three broad divisions are recognized: general physiology , concerned with basic processes common to all life forms; the physiology and functional anatomy of humans and other animals, including pathology and comparative studies; and plant physiology, which includes photo...

Genetic Engineering, alteration of an organism's genetic, or hereditary, material to eliminate undesirable characteristics or to produce desirable new ones. Genetic engineering is used to increase plant and animal food production; to help dispose of industrial wastes; and to diagnose disease, improve medical treatment, and produce vaccines and other useful drugs. Included in genetic engineering techniques are the selective breeding of plants and animals, hybridization (reproduction between different strains or species), and recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Genetic engineering enables scientists to produce clones of cells or organisms that contain the same genes. Scientists use restriction enzymes to isolate a segment of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that contains a gene of interest—for example, the gene regulating insulin production. A plasmid removed from a bacterium and treated with the same restriction enzyme binds with the DNA fragment to form a hybrid plasma. The hybrid ...

Biochemistry, study of the substances found in living organisms, and of the chemical reactions underlying life processes. This science is a branch of both chemistry and biology; the prefix bio- comes from bios, the Greek word for “life.” The chief goal of biochemistry is to understand the structure and behavior of biomolecules. These are the carbon-containing compounds that make up the various parts of the living cell and carry out the chemical reactions that enable it to grow, maintain and reproduce itself, and use and store energy. A vast array of biomolecules is present in the cell. The structure of each biomolecule determines in what chemical reactions it is able to participate, and hence what role it plays in the cell's life processes. Among the most important classes of biomolecules are nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. Nucleic acids are responsible for storing and transferring genetic information. They are enormous molecules made up of long strands of subu...