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Gastroenterology, medical specialty that focuses on the human digestive system and the diseases that affect it. Specialists in the field, called gastroenterologists, study and treat disorders of the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and colon—collectively called the gastrointestinal tract—as well as disorders of the liver, gallbladder, and other organs involved in digestion. Among the most common conditions that gastroenterologists care for are disorders of the stomach , the organ that receives, stores, and partially digests food in the early steps of human digestion. Gastritis, for example, is an inflammation of the stomach lining that often results in abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. Gastritis may be caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, viral infections, stress, allergies, and reactions to alcohol, aspirin, or other substances. A gastroenterologist must identify the causative agent in order to treat this inflammation. Gastroenterologists also specialize i

Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the endocrine system and its specific secretions called hormones . Endocrinology is concerned with the study of the biosynthesis, storage, chemistry, and physiological function of hormones and with the cells of the endocrine glands and tissues that secrete them. For more information about the topic Endocrinology, read the full articles at Wikipedia.org.

Biopsy, surgical removal of living body tissue for study and diagnosis with a microscope . Biopsies are performed on organs to analyze the cause and nature of disease, and on tumors , or abnormal tissue growths, to determine if they are a type of cancer . For patients diagnosed with certain diseases, follow-up biopsies are used to study the effectiveness of a chosen course of medical treatment. Biopsies are vital in diagnosing and monitoring a wide range of illnesses, including muscular dystrophy , characterized by gradual wasting away of skeletal muscle, and Crohn’s disease , the chronic inflammation of the intestines. An external biopsy specimen is taken by cutting or scraping a piece of tissue from an affected area of skin . When a sample is needed from an area well below the surface of the skin, the procedure is called internal biopsy, and viewing techniques such as ultrasound or computer axial tomography are often used to help the physician guide a hollow needle to the exact loc

Aerospace Medicine, branch of preventive medicine that is concerned with the physiological and psychological stresses on the human body in flight. The study of effects within the earth’s atmosphere is also called aviation medicine; beyond this atmosphere the study of effects is also called space medicine. Aerospace medicine was recognized as a subspecialty by the American Medical Association in 1953.

Automation, system of manufacture designed to extend the capacity of machines to perform certain tasks formerly done by humans, and to control sequences of operations without human intervention. The term automation has also been used to describe nonmanufacturing systems in which programmed or automatic devices can operate independently or nearly independently of human control. In the fields of communications, aviation, and astronautics, for example, such devices as automatic telephone switching equipment, automatic pilots, and automated guidance and control systems are used to perform various operations much faster or better than could be accomplished by humans.

Embryology, branch of biology dealing with the development of the animal embryo. (For the embryology of plants, see Fertilization ; Plant ; Seed .) Embryology includes within its province the development of the fertilized egg and embryo and the growth of the fetus . Comparative Embryology Sea urchins, frogs, humans, and many other animals are remarkably similar in their early development. All begin with a single cell that divides into two cells, the first step in the process of cleavage (1a, 2a, 3a). During cleavage, cell divisions occur so rapidly that the cells do not have time to grow between divisions, and the result is smaller and smaller cells. Cleavage produces a solid ball of cells called a morula (1b, 2b, 3b). Within the morula, a fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoel develops, converting a morula into a blastula (1c, 2c, 3c). In a process called gastrulation, certain cells of the blastula migrate to different regions of the blastula to create the gastrula, a structure wit

Physiology, study of the physical and chemical processes that take place in living organisms during the performance of life functions. It is concerned with such basic activities as reproduction , growth, metabolism , excitation, and contraction as they are carried out within the fine structure, the cells , tissues , organs, and organ systems of the body. Physiology is intimately linked with anatomy and was historically considered a part of medicine. Its emphasis on investigating biological mechanisms with the tools of physics and chemistry made physiology a distinct discipline in the 19th century; the tendency today, however, is toward a fragmentation and merging with the many specialized branches of the life sciences. Three broad divisions are recognized: general physiology , concerned with basic processes common to all life forms; the physiology and functional anatomy of humans and other animals, including pathology and comparative studies; and plant physiology, which includes photo